Crystallization pressure is the primary cause of deterioration of monuments in the Mediterranean Basin - and appears to be taking a heavy toll on our campus, too. The theory has been discussed in the literature for more than 100 years, but confusion remains. In fact, the equilibrium thermodynamics is rather well understood, and is explained in the articles below. However, evidence from the field implies that the important damage processes occur out of equilibrium. We are developing models for the non-equilibrium case, and some progress is reported in the papers below.
Relevant papers:
“Freezing Gels”, G.W. Scherer, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 155 (1993) 1-25
“Crystallization in pores”, G.W. Scherer, Cement Concr. Res. 29 [8] (1999) 1347-1358; “Reply to discussion of Crystallization in pores”, G.W. Scherer, Cement and Concr. Res. 30 [4] (2000) 673-675
“Stress from crystallization of salt in pores”, G.W. Scherer, pp. 187-194 in Proc. 9th Int. Cong. Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, Vol. 1, ed. V. Fassina (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2000)
“Materials Science Research for Conservation of Sculpture and Monuments”, G.W. Scherer, R. Flatt, and G. Wheeler, MRS Bulletin, Jan. 2001, pp. 44-50
“Crystallization damage by sodium sulfate”, N. Tsui, R.J. Flatt, G.W. Scherer, J. Cultural Heritage 4 (2003) 109-115
“Factors affecting crystallization pressure”, G.W. Scherer, pp 139-154 in Internal Sulfate Attack and Delayed Ettringite Formation, Proc. Int. RILEM 186-ISA Workshop, ed K. Scrivener and J. Skalny (PRO 35, RILEM publications, Paris 2004)
“Stress from crystallization of salt”, G.W. Scherer, Cement Concr. Res. 34 (2004) 1613-1624
“Mechanisms of Frost Damage”, G.W. Scherer and J.J. Valenza II, pp. 209-246 in Materials Science of Concrete, Vol. VII, eds. J. Skalny and F. Young (American Ceramic Society, 2005)
“Controlling stress from salt crystallization”, J. Houck and G.W. Scherer, pp. 299-312 in Fracture and Failure of Natural Building Stones, ed. S.K. Kourkoulis (Springer, Dordrecht, 2006)
“Effect of the pore size distribution on crystallization pressure”, G. Chanvillard and G.W. Scherer, pp. 669-673 in Measuring, Monitoring and Modeling Concrete Properties, ed. M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos (Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2006)
“Internal stress and cracking in stone and masonry”, G.W. Scherer, pp. 633-641 in Measuring, Monitoring and Modeling Concrete Properties, ed. M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos (Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2006)
“A commented translation of the paper by C.W. Correns and W. Steinborn on crystallization pressure”, R.J. Flatt, M. Steiger, G.W. Scherer, Env. Geo. DOI 10.1007/s00254-006-0509-5
“Thermodynamics of crystallization stresses in DEF”, R.J. Flatt and G.W. Scherer, Cement Concrete Res. 38 (2008) 325–336
“Modeling damage from ice and salt”, G.W. Scherer, pp. 13-23 in Proc. Int. RILEM Symp. On Concrete Modelling (CONMOD ’08), eds. E. Schlangen and G. DeSchutter (RILEM, Bagneux, France, 2008) ISBN-13: 978-2-35158-060-8
“Kinetics of ice growth in cement and concrete”, Z. Sun and G.W. Scherer, pp. 183-190 in Int. RILEM Symp. On Concrete Modelling (CONMOD ’08), eds. E. Schlangen and G. DeSchutter (RILEM, Bagneux, France, 2008) ISBN-13: 978-2-35158-060-8
“Swelling clays and salt crystallization: Damage mechanisms and the role of consolidants”, G.W. Scherer and I. Jiménéz Gonzalez, pp. 29-39 in Proc. Int. Symp. Stone consolidation in cultural heritage, eds. J. Delgado Rodrigues and J. Manuel Mimoso (Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, 2008) ISBN 978-972-49-2135-8
“Crystallization of sodium sulfate salts in limestone”, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal, G.W. Scherer, Env. Geo. 56 [3-4] (2008) 605-621 [DOI 10.1007/s00254-008-1441-7]
“Study of the pore clogging induced by salt crystallization in Indiana limestone”, R. M. Espinosa Marzal, G. W. Scherer, Proc. 11th Int. Cong. Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (Nicolaus Copernicus University Press, Torun, Poland, 2008) Vol. I, pp. 81-88
“Crystallization Pressure Exerted by in-Pore Confined Crystals”, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal and G.W. Scherer, pp. 1013-1018 in Poromechanics IV, Proc. Fourth Biot Conf. on Poromechanics, New York, 2009. eds. H.I. Ling, A. Smyth, R. Betti (DEStech Publications, Lancaster, PA, 2009)
“Mechanisms of damage by salt”, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal & G. W. Scherer, pp. 61-77 in Limestone in the Built Environment: Present-Day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past. B.J. Smith, M. Gomez-Heras, H.A. Viles & J. Cassar (eds), Special Publications 331 (Geological Society, London, 2010)
“Advances in Understanding Damage by Salt Crystallization”, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal & G. W. Scherer, Accounts of Chemical Research 43 [6] (2010) 897-905
DOI: 10.1021/ar9002224
“The formation of meta-stable sodium sulfate heptahydrate in porous materials as studied by NMR”, L. Pel, T. Saidov, R. Espinosa-Marzal, G. Scherer, MEDACHS 10, eds. A.K. Ait-Mokhtar and D. Breysse (MEDACHS, La Rochelle, France, 2010) 47-54
“Can drying and re-wetting of magnesium sulfate salts lead to damage of stone?”, E. Balboni, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal, E. Doehne, G.W. Scherer, Env. Geo. 63 [7-8] (2011) 1463-1473
“The chemomechanics of sodium sulfate crystallization in thenardite impregnated limestones during re-wetting”, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal, A. Hamilton, M. McNall, K. Whitaker, and G.W. Scherer, J. Mater. Res. 26 [12] (2011) 1472-1481
“Heptahydrate I: The growth of sodium sulfate heptahydrate crystals”, H. Derluyn, T.A. Saidov, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal, L. Pel, G.W. Scherer, J. Crystal Growth 329 (2011) 44–51
“Nucleation of sodium sulfate heptahydrate on mineral substrates studied by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance”, T.A. Saidov, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal, Leo Pel, G.W. Scherer, J. Crystal Growth 338 (2012) 166-169
“Impact of in-pore salt crystallization on transport properties”, R.M. Espinosa-Marzal and G.W. Scherer, Env. Earth Sci. [November] (2012)
DOI 10.1007/s12665-012-2087-z
“Pressure from Crystallization in Pore Channels”, G.W. Scherer and S. Gupta, pp. 766-771 in Poromechanics V: Proceedings of the Fifth Biot Conference on Poromechan-ics, eds. C. Hellmich, B. Pichler, D. Adam (Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Reston, VA, 2013) 978-0-7844-1299-2 (CD-Rom), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784412992.268
“Supersaturation in Porous Media”, G.W. Scherer, pp. 2290-2296 in Poromechanics V: Proceedings of the Fifth Biot Conference on Poromechanics, eds. C. Hellmich, B. Pichler, D. Adam (Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Reston, VA, 2013) 978-0-7844-1299-2 (CD-Rom), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784412992.092
“Hydroxyapatite-based consolidant and the acceleration of hydrolysis of silicate-based consolidants”, S. Naidu, C. Liu, G.W. Scherer, J. Cultural Heritage (2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2014.01.001
“Chemo-mechanics of salt damage in stone”, R.J. Flatt, F. Caruso, A.M. Aguilar Sanchez, G.W. Scherer, Nature Commun. 5:4823 doi: 10.1038/ncomms5823 (2014)